Both external and internal circumstances have caused cities to be destroyed or abandoned through the centuries Natural disasters Earthquakes, tidal waves, volcanic eruptions and severe flooding have brought about the demise of many settlements through the ages. The city of Pompeii was built on an ancient lava flow from nearby Mount Vesuvius, and several other towns were located nearby. When the volcano erupted in 79 CE, Pompeii was inundated with volcanic ash and swamped with lava, destroying everything in its path. In 1319, the city of Ani in east Turkey was devastated by an earthquake that reduced many of its structures to heaps of rubble. Only a remnant of the once bustling settlement remained, later to be completely abandoned.
Ancient History’s
LOST
CITIE
Uncover the elusive civilisations that were lost to time
Ancient History’s
LOST
CITIES
he notion of the lost city is steeped in mystery and
adventure, and the inevitable uncertainty that surrounds
the disappearance of a civilisation that once thrived. Ancient
History’s Lost Cities examines why certain cities became
abandoned, as well as how several were rediscovered years,
even centuries, later. From Troy, Babylon and Pompeii to Petra, Angkor
and Machu Picchu, step back in time and learn about the rise and fall
of such fascinating places. Visit lesser-known cities, such as Carthage
and La Ciudad Perdida, and discover the stories behind these unfamiliar
civilisations. Uncover the structures that provided housing, places of
worship and other essential amenities; learn all about the circumstances
that caused these cities to be destroyed or abandoned, from natural
disasters and war to overpopulation and disease; and explore the
incredible ways these cities were rediscovered, whether through accidental
discovery or archaeological sleuthing. Through photos and illustrations
of the places, people and artefacts, as well as written records and detailed
maps of the key sites, go on a journey unlike any other you’ve been on
before, and lose yourself in the captivating world of lost cities.
Ancient History’s
LOST
p
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Part of the
bookazine series
contents
34
10
Legend, lore and
lost cities
18
6
Troy
22
Babylon
30
Taxila
34
Carthage
42
Pompeii
52
Persepolis
60
Petra
70
Palenque
78
Ctesiphon
82
Tikal
42
86
86
124
86
Ani
94
Calakmul
98
60
106
82
138
120
La Ciudad Perdida
106
Angkor
116
Great Zimbabwe
120
Vijayanagar
124
Machu Picchu
138
Lost cities across
the globe
7
Lost Cities
pompeii
p42
calakmul palenque
p94 p70
La Ciudad
Perdida
p98
carthage
p34
tikal
p82
Machu Picchu
p124
8
ani
p86
taxila
p30
troy
p18
ctesiphon
p78
petra
p60
babylon
p22
persepolis
p52
great
zimbabwe
p116
World Map
vijayanagar
p120
angkor
p106
9
10
he lure of the lost city transcends
time and the human experience. For
whatever reason, a people, a culture, a
way of life was there for a while, and
then it was gone.
People are ‘social animals’, and since the
dawn of existence have clustered together for
mutual support, hunting, gathering, farming,
building shelters, raising children, practising the
same religion, protecting one another against
external threats, and developing cultural ties that
civilisations have come to share in common. From
cave dwellers to the builders of skyscrapers, these
human instincts remain.
Long ago, the beginnings of economic, cultural
and social identity emerged as peoples gathered
in ever greater numbers. Settlements, villages
and then cities developed as concentrations of a
populace built substantial structures for housing,
worship and countless other reasons. These cities
were often located near natural resources, such as
water, arable land or open spaces for livestock to
graze, with proximity to trade routes as a widening
world brought unknown commodities from distant
lands. As commerce increased, profits were made
and wealth accumulated.
The notion of the lost city is today steeped in
mystery, adventure, romance, the quest for gold or
other riches, and the inevitable uncertainty that
surrounds the disappearance of a civilisation that
once thrived but for some reason ebbed away or
simply disappeared. After all, if the city itself did
exist, its ruins probably remain where they were in
ancient times. It is likely then, that the soul of the
city - its people - died or vacated their once vibrant
home for some reason, known or unknown.
The phenomenon of the lost city exists in varied circumstances. Some cities become lost simply due
11
to the fact that those who lived there abandoned
How cities
become lost
Both external and internal
circumstances have caused cities to be destroyed or abandoned through the centuries
Natural disasters
Earthquakes, tidal waves, volcanic eruptions and severe flooding have brought
about the demise of many
settlements through the
ages. The city of Pompeii was
built on an ancient lava flow
from nearby Mount Vesuvius,
and several other towns were
located nearby. When the volcano erupted in 79
CE, Pompeii was inundated with volcanic ash and
swamped with lava, destroying everything in its
path. In 1319, the city of Ani in east Turkey was
devastated by an earthquake that reduced many of its structures to heaps of rubble. Only a remnant of the once bustling settlement remained, later to be completely abandoned.
Ravages of war
With the enemy at the gates, in the streets and claiming booty, some cities died or were
‘severely wounded’ during
wartime. Homer’s Iliad is the
story of the Greeks’ burning of
Troy during the culmination of
years of conflict. The city of Taxila
in modern Pakistan was severely
damaged by marauding Huns. The once
powerful North African city of Carthage threatened
the mighty Roman Empire only to be destroyed by
Roman legions under Scipio Aemilianus in 146 BCE
during the Third Punic War. Before the catastrophic
earthquake of 1319, the city of Ani was besieged
and captured by a Seljuk army in 1064, and its
population was slaughtered.
the area, lived their remaining lives in another
place, and left no known record of their having
resided elsewhere. Therefore, the city they left in
earlier days became lost to collective memory.
In other words, succeeding generations have no
connection, no frame of reference to a city of
which they know nothing. Other lost cities have
been preserved in some fashion, at least in myth,
theory or conjecture. The best preservation is the
written record; stories of places and people that
have survived through the centuries, and even
enticing clues that a city, once very much alive,
is out there, ravaged by time but retaining in its
ruins the essence of the civilisation that once
flourished where jungle vines, floodwaters or
shifting sands now shroud its secrets.
Cities become lost for a variety of reasons.
Natural disasters, famine, flood and fire all have
claimed their victims. Disease, climate change,
depleted resources and the devastation of war leave deserted dwelling places and empty edifices in
their wakes. At times, the cause of a city’s demise is completely unexplained, or the existence of the city itself may actually be the stuff of legend, living only in the imagination.
Indeed, the Camelot of King Arthur may be only a wisp of folklore, while Atlantis, both city and
continent, have eluded discovery and frustrated
would-be finders for centuries. El Dorado, the
lost city of gold, has captivated the imagination of treasure hunters who have mounted
expeditions and risked their lives in pursuit of
a dream, while no proof of its existence has ever
come to light. The Biblical cities of Sodom and
Gomorrah, destroyed by a vengeful God because
of their decadence and debauchery, have been
erased from the tangible record, either buried in
the sands of millennia or wiped away by the deity’s wrath. Both Hindu and Buddhist texts allude
to the kingdom of Shambala, nestled somewhere among the towering
peaks of the Tibetan Himalayas
A Mayan pyramid that
served as a ceremonial
structure stretches
skyward among the
ruins of the city of Tikal in Guatemala
Overpopulation,
trade and disease
The populations of lost cities
varied widely, from only a few
thousand to multitudes, and
the strain of infrastructure
was the undoing of several
settlements. The relocation of
vital trade routes and depletion
- but there is nothing, no stack of stone, unearthed idol, or
chiselled inscription that
confirms its actual presence.
Shambala, though, lives
on in thought through
religious writings and even
in popular culture via fanciful
images and song.
The Maya
civilisation was
a Mesoamerican
civilisation developed
by the
Maya peoples
century BCE, the city of Petra,
its ruins lying in modern-day
southern Jordan, was eventually
abandoned after a tremendous
earthquake inflicted heavy damage
of land suitable for farming and
other natural resources also contributed
to the decline and abandonment of lost cities. Taxila
was the victim of changing trade routes, while
Petra, a prominent city in south Jordan, prospered
until overland trade routes were superseded by
more efficient water routes. Invading Spaniards
brought smallpox to the Inca at Machu Picchu and
elsewhere. Although continuing warfare took its toll,
the ancient city of Ctesiphon on the banks of the
Tigris River was deserted by 800, its prominence
overshadowed by Baghdad.
12
Mother Nature has borne
responsibility for the demise of numerous
cities. Some experts theorise that Atlantis was
swallowed up by the sea, possibly a tsunami that
followed a catastrophic earthquake. In 79 CE an
angry Mount Vesuvius erupted and inundated
the city of Pompeii in a wave of volcanic ash and
lava. Molten rock flooded through the streets and
terrified citizens were buried alive, some of them
frozen in time. The nearby city of Herculaneum
met a similar fate. Established as a centre of
commerce along major trade routes during the 4th
to buildings in 363, and maritime trade
routes encroached on its landward passages,
decreasing the city’s commercial relevance.
Similarly, the crossroads city of Taxila, located in north east Pakistan, began to decline during the 5th century following devastating damage inflicted by invading Huns and the shift of major trade routes away from its location.
Collectively constructed as the largest religious
monument in the world, Angkor in Cambodia was
originally a centre of the Hindu and subsequently
the Buddhist faith. Construction of the sacred
How cities are
rediscovered
Tantalising clues, the promise of
wealth, the desire to learn and
simple good fortune drive the
rediscovery of lost cities
Accidental discoveries
When a simple home-improvement
project opens the door to a lost
subterranean city, or the search
for sunken 18th century warships
leads to the discovery of a city
submerged in the Mediterranean
Sea for more than a millennium, no
other explanation applies. Like others
in science, mathematics or medicine,
the discoveries of the archaeological wonders of
Derinkuyu and Heracleion were by accident. At Troy,
the search for the city of King Priam and Helen, the
face that launched 1,000 ships, led to the discovery
of at least eight other cities constructed through
the ages on the same site. The pursuit of one goal
may lead to finding another, and these are but a
few prominent examples.
Archaeological
sleuthing
The archaeological detective digs
- often literally - into the dust,
dirt and detritus of the ages to
piece together the story of a city
once abandoned. Clues lead one
to another, either surfacing in the
written record or evidenced in a shard
of pottery or an ancient story. With Taxila,
Sir Arthur Cunningham had unravelled conflicting
accounts of its location, used his best methodology
to calculate the likely location of the ancient trade
centre and forged ahead. The work of thieves,
tomb robbers and opportunists helped modern
archaeologists to locate La Ciudad Perdida. Their
curiosity was aroused when artefacts began to
circulate on the black market.
Fame, fortune
and knowledge
The quest, the journey of fulfilment,
“Erosion of arable land resulted in a
plummeting population”
and the thirst for knowledge, riches
or fame drive some adventurers to
seek lost cities. Ulugh Khan Jahan, a
Turkish general of the 15th century,
founded the city of Bagerhat,
located in modern Bangladesh. At the
city and capital of the Khmer Empire began in
the 12th century, as 300,000 common labourers
and artisans worked placing stone and sculpting
magnificent likenesses of deities in bas relief. In
time, much of the city was engulfed in thick jungle vegetation and rediscovery efforts are ongoing.
The great Mayan population centre at Tikal in the
rainforest of Guatemala reached its zenith during
a 700-year period from 200 to 900. Estimates of
its central and surrounding population range from 10,000 to 90,000. Dominated by religious temples that rose nearly 50 metres high, the sprawling
city covered nearly 16 square kilometres and
encompassed 3,000 stone structures. By the
9th century, continuing warfare led to further
concentration of the population at Tikal while
simultaneously eroding the productive capacity
of the land in the surrounding area. In turn,
agricultural efforts failed to produce enough food to feed the people and natural resources were
depleted. Deforestation and erosion of arable land resulted in a plummeting population and eventual abandonment of Tikal. By 950, Tikal was reduced to a ghost city.
height of its glory, Bagherat included at
least 50 Islamic mosques and monuments.
Although Ulugh Khan Jahan probably never
conceived of the possibility that his city might
one day be consumed by the surrounding jungle,
his death in 1459 was a harbinger of its demise.
Slowly abandoned, Bagerhat was left to the clinging vines and nearby swampland that inexorably
reclaimed the site. Encouraged by the prospect of
discovery, officials undertook a survey of the area
in 1895, which was the beginning of a new era of
examination.
13
Buddhist artisans created these
intricate motifs at the lost city of
Taxila in Pakistan along with huge
sculptures of Buddha and other works
The accidental rediscovery of Derinkuyu in Turkey during the 1960s revealed
a fascinating subterranean
city with hundreds of passages and rooms
Close inspection of the walls of Troy VII
reveals the tremendous hours of labour
that went into their construction. Troy VII
is believed to be the Troy of the Iliad
The terraces of Machu Picchu
stretch towards the guardhouse
in the distance amid the ruins
of the great mountain palace
“The site believed to be Troy is actually the
location of at least nine cities, rebuilt through
the ages at the same location”
The Incan Empire flourished for almost 200 years during the 13th and 14th centuries, but its vast territorial holdings, religious practices and eventually its cities fell victim to European interlopers during the Age of Exploration. The great estate at Machu Picchu, a religious centre and probably the home of Emperor
Pachacuti during the mid-1400s, is located 2,430 metres above sea
level, 80 kilometres north of
myth and legend in the Iliad of Homer, spurring
explorers to search for the city where Achilles
and Hector duelled to the death, Helen sought
refuge, and a fabled horse became the undoing of
a people. Modern archaeologists have assessed the
site believed to be Troy is actually the location
of at least nine cities, destroyed and
rebuilt through the ages at the same
location. Homeric Troy dates to
The Inca sometime in the 12th to 14th
its presence was known but its exact location
eluded archaeologists for years. Early texts and
descriptions in the written record placed Taxila
some distance from its actual location, and until the
early 19th century when numerous lost cities were
rediscovered, Taxila remained silent and desolate.
The Roman philosopher Pliny believed Taxila
was located two days distant from the Indus River
along the banks of the Haro River. However, in 1863, Sir Arthur Cunningham noted that the Chinese
the Incan capital city of Cuzco. Unlike other Incan cities that were heavily damaged or
destroyed by the invading
Spanish conquistadors, Machu
Picchu’s polished stone walls
and intricate carvings remain
largely untouched. The estate was
abandoned around 1550, possibly due
Empire was the
largest empire in pre-
Columbian America
and possibly in the
world in the early
16th century
centuries BCE, and corresponds
to excavated site Troy VII.
Through the centuries, debate around the actual location
of Troy has persisted, and
archaeological excavations that
began in the mid-1800s continue to this day.
The rediscovery of lost cities lies
Buddhist monk Hieun Tsang recorded the distance
as three days. Cunningham began excavations at
a site more closely corresponding to Hieun Tsang’s
report and found Taxila, beginning decades of
archaeological research at the site.
Machu Picchu remained dormant and shrouded in jungle vines and lush overgrowth until 1911,
when a Peruvian guide brought Yale University
professor Hiram Bingham to the site. The estate had
to the scourge of smallpox introduced by
the Europeans, which killed thousands of Incas.
During their explorations, the Spanish never found
Machu Picchu, and the encroaching jungle left it
largely obscured until the early 20th century.
The great city of Troy once dominated the east Mediterranean basin and became the stuff of
14
with the adventurous spirit of the treasure
hunter, the explorer with a thirst for knowledge of
ancient civilisation, the detective intent on solving
an ancient mystery, or even by accident. While
the abandoned city of Taxila has become a focal
point of the modern Pakistani tourism industry
with its museum and well-documented ruins,
been virtually unchanged since its abandonment in
the 16th century, 400 years earlier. Pompeii was lost
for 1,500 years, entombed in the shadow of Mount
Vesuvius until its accidental rediscovery in 1599,
when the digging of a channel to alter the course
of the Sarno River progressed right into the buried
city’s walls. Still, another 150 years passed before
Taxila was declared
a UNESCO World
Heritage Site in 1980,
and is an important
archaeological site
Excavations at the site of Troy II
progressed under Heinrich Schliemann
in 1893. Schliemann’s work was
questioned by numerous authorities
Spanish engineer Rocque Joaquin de
Alcubierre began to probe through
four to six metres of hardened
pumice and volcanic ash to find the
amazingly well-preserved remnants
of the doomed city.
The city of Great Zimbabwe was
the capital of the African kingdom
that shared its name. Established
in the 11th century, it flourished for
400 years, and its population grew
to an estimated 19,000. Although
depletion of resources is considered by many archaeologists as the
primary cause for its abandonment,
the mystery remains. Other possible
causes include the exhaustion of
nearby gold mines, the decline of active trade as
routes moved in different directions, and water
shortages precipitated by climate change. Although Europeans visited the site in the 1500s, a century after Great Zimbabwe was abandoned, efforts to catalog its history were minimal. The city slipped into obscurity for another three centuries.
Adam Render, a German-American trader
and adventurer, came upon the ruins of Great
Zimbabwe in 1867 while on a hunting expedition, and brought German explorer and geographer
Karl Mauch to the site in 1871. Mauch had been
searching for the land of Ophir, mentioned in
the Bible as being associated with King Solomon.
Mauch recorded the existence of Great Zimbabwe
and began an effort to link its rediscovery with
the story of Solomon and the Queen of Sheba,
capturing the popular imagination of the period.
At times, archaeologists have stumbled in their
efforts to unlock the secrets of cities once lost.
Despite its fame and established place in fact and
fiction, the actual location of Troy remained elusive for more than a millennium. In the mid-1860s,
British archaeologist Frank Calvert dug exploratory trenches on the site of successive Trojan cities,
and German Heinrich Schliemann soon followed.
Later, archaeologists who conducted excavations at
Troy derided Schliemann’s work. Although he had
The centuries-old Treasury
Temple in the lost city of Petra,
located in modern Jordan,
gleams in the afternoon sunlight
unearthed many artefacts that helped to identify the site more clearly, Schliemann was accused of having done as much harm as good, actually destroying much of the site in the process.
Today, the rediscovery of lost cities continues.
In 1963, a Turkish man was demolishing a wall in
his home and stumbled upon a passageway to the
underground city of Derinkuyu, which dates to the
Byzantine era from 780 to 1180. Derinkuyu is the
largest underground city discovered and excavated
in modern Turkey. Its infrastructure is large
enough to have supported a population estimated
up to 20,000, and its depth reaches 600 metres.
Roughly half the city has been excavated, revealing
15
The remains of the conical tower stand
within the walls of the Great Enclosure of the
medieval city of Great Zimbabwe in Africa
This colossal statue
of a Ptolemaic king
was recovered from
its underwater
resting place in the
rediscovered city of
Heracleion in Egypt
dwellings, places of worship, stables, tombs, wells, cellars and other elements related to everyday
living. Derinkuyu opened to visitors in 1969.
The pre-Columbian city of La Ciudad Perdida was rediscovered in 1972 when treasure hunters and looters brought artefacts out of the Colombian forest, and these antiquities were seen for
sale through the local black market. By 1976, archaeologists had become aware of the finds. They rediscovered the city and prepared
for its excavation and preservation, which is an ongoing effort.
For years, stories of the ancient
in 1607, is well documented. The tribulation of the
‘starving time’, the near failure due to sickness and
lack of food and water, the assistance and later the
hostility of the indigenous people to the European
settlers, as well as the eventual expansion of the
Virginia colony are familiar. However, archaeologists
and historians believed for decades that the original
Jamestown fort was lost forever to erosion due to
its location near the mouth of the James River
and the Atlantic Ocean. In the 1990s,
however, the history of Jamestown
was rewritten with the discovery
and conclusive identification of
Egyptian city of Heracleion were
thought to be only the stuff of
legend, including the tale that
it was presumably lost to the
waters of the Mediterranean
Sea 1,200 years ago. In 2000,
Dr Franck Goddio, a French
archaeologist searching the waters
Some lost cities
thought to be mere
legendry have actually
been found, such
as Heracleion
the palisades of the original
triangular Jamestown fort.
For the last 30 years, teams
led by Dr William Kelso have
unearthed artefacts, including
several graves, confirming that
most of the fort is in fact on dry
land. Ironically, scientists, tourists,
of Aboukir Bay for the wrecks of
French warships lost in a Napoleonic Era
naval battle, accidentally found the city. Immense
carved statues standing nearly five metres high
have been dated to the 8th century BCE and hauled
to the surface. The wreckage of dozens of ancient
ships, gold coins and bronze measuring weights
have been found as well.
The story of Jamestown, the first permanent
English settlement in North America established
historic preservationists and others had
believed the original hypothesis, and walked
the grounds with the amazing discovery a few
metres beneath their feet.
In numerous ways, lost cities are architectural and cultural marvels. People carried on their
routine activities, streets bustled with travellers
and merchants, and artisans with remarkable
skills plied their crafts. Structures were built of
stone, sometimes without the aid of mortar, as
Camelot found?
A retired English professor believes
he may have solved the ancient
riddle of the location of King
Arthur’s legendary city
For centuries, historians have debated whether
King Arthur and his fabled city of Camelot are fact
or fiction. In the case of Camelot, perhaps the
answer is at hand. Peter Field, a retired professor
of English at Bangor University in Wales, believes
he has unravelled the mystery. Field, an expert
on Arthurian literature, taught at Bangor for 40
years before retiring in 2004, and recently spent
18 months developing a theory to support a likely location for the city.
In December 2016, Field revealed that he believes
the location of King Arthur’s city is the small town
of Slack in West Yorkshire. While historians have
speculated that the location, if it exists at all, might
be Caerleon in South Wales, Cadbury Castle in
Somerset, Tintagel in Cornwall, or Cardigan or
Carmarthen in Wales, Field asserts that Slack is the
logical place, more precisely beneath a golf course
and a portion of the M62 motorway.
The basis for Field’s assertion is straightforward.
An ancient Roman fort stood at a site in Slack
called Camulodunum, which may be the origin of
the name ‘Camelot’. The time of King Arthur was
supposedly around 500, when he would have led
Britons against an Anglo-Saxon invasion from the
north and west, and Slack is centrally located to
send soldiers towards a threat along either coast.
The first mention of King Arthur in Camelot is
contained in a French poem from the Champagne
region dated 1180. The Dark Ages intervened from
Arthur’s supposed lifetime until the poem emerged,
and little relevant historical information from the
period actually exists.
“It was quite by chance,” the professor related.
“I was looking at some maps, and suddenly all
the ducks lined up. I believe I may have solved a
1,400-year-old mystery.”
Gustave Dore created many
illustrations for The Idylls of
the King, a poem about the
legend of King Arthur
The ruins of the once-mighty city of Carthage maintain their grandeur on the Tunisian coast as the
Mediterranean Sea stretches beyond
well as wood and various concoctions of plaster and masonry. The walls of towering temples,
government halls, palaces and public areas were often adorned with works of art and intricate
inscriptions that give modern observers glimpses
of life in ancient times in locales across the globe.
Although history and folklore are inevitably
giving up their secrets with the advent of modern
technology, analysis of written records and even
happenstance, it is inevitable to conclude that
some lost cities will remain lost, either due to
their remote locations, our inability to unlock certain riddles of his past, or possibly because they never existed at all. Atlantis eludes; El Dorado remains hidden. Modern people have yet to walk the streets of Camelot.
Meanwhile, the thirst for more knowledge
of the compelling story of human history
drives the adventurer, the scientist and the
simply curious to seek and find the cities that
preceded modern concentrations of concrete
and steel.
17
This once seemingly mythical city was the centre of the Ancient Greek world and the setting for some of
the most celebrated works in classical literature
TURKEY TROY
he ancient city of Troy was
mythologised by one of the greatest
writers in Ancient Greece: Homer.
His epic poem The Iliad depicts the
events of the Trojan War between
the wider Greek people led by the warrior-like
Agamemnon and the people of the city of Troy
under King Priam. Until the 19th century, every
aspect of Homer’s tale in which the Greek gods
descend from Olympia and engage in battle was
seen entirely as a work of fiction; the city of Troy
was largely thought to be an invention. However,
that changed with the discovery of the ruins
of a city in western Turkey in 1870 that fitted
its descriptors, then the discovery of further
settlements dating back to the Bronze age, which seemed to confirm that Troy, or to give it its
modern name Hisarlik, was once a real city.
It was the German businessman Heinrich
Schliemann (1822-1890) who first discovered the
city. Having made a considerable fortune in his
business dealings, he retired at 46 and devoted the
second half of his life to finding Troy. The son of a
clergyman, he was given Ludwig Jerrer’s Illustrated
History of the World as a Christmas present by his
father as a boy. The book contained an illustration
of the Trojan War that fascinated and inspired him
to track down the city that was otherwise thought
to have been a myth. After excavating at various
sites in Greece, he finally discovered what he was
looking for in what is today Turkey, and what was,
in Homer’s time, Asia Minor.
Troy was settled for around 3,000 years before
being abandoned during the late Roman era. Today
it stands four miles away from the sea, which does
not fit with Homer’s account. However, hydrologists
18
19
have recently established that the bay surrounding Troy has changed significantly over the past
10,000 years. As Carol G Thomas and Craig Conant explain in their book The Trojan War, the evidence suggests that there was a narrow coastal plain
around the bay of Troy, which could accommodate the landing of ships, which has since dried up.
They argue this “makes a great deal more sense of
the Homeric references” and has convinced even
the sceptics that Hisarlik is the remains of Troy.
The city was re-built and expanded over its
life, and these versions have been categorised
by archaeologists into nine different cities: Troy
I - Troy IX, though some argue that this is too
simplistic. The Grove Encyclopedia of Classical Art
and Architecture suggests that the different cities
should be seen as “broader bands” that incorporate about 50 different building phases.
Troy I - V were Bronze Age structures that
acted as a centre for the largely pastoral, rural
community, typical of the Bronze Age, that lived
in the surrounding fields. The second Troy was
the first to have its own acropolis, a high mound
where the most important buildings stood, often
built as a shrine, imbued with religious qualities.
The acropolis of Troy II was where the king had his
palace, made of brick and constructed in a Megaron
plan, known for its open porches, columns and
other open spaces. Here we can see the middle-
eastern influence on the city. Troy II burned down, but a host of Bronze Age treasure (mistakenly
labelled Priam’s treasure by Schliemann, after
the King of Troy from the later Homeric period)
survives. It contains a collection of relatively simple but intriguing golden plates and beats, and most striking of all, a series of golden diadems. Later
archaeologists and studies have disputed the claim
that Schliemann found the treasure in one hoard,
but collated different treasure from across the site.
The citadels of the later Troy cities were more
fortified, suggesting that the fire that destroyed the
second Troy was started deliberately by an invading force, or the inhabitants of the later cities felt the
need to fortify Troy for some reason. The buildings were also made of stone rather than mud brick.
The inhabitants of Troy VI and Troy VII were the
first to settle horses in the area. The residents of the
middle Troys built up the city considerably. One
of their crowning achievements must have been
the famous limestone city walls that rose to five
metres (17 feet) and were 140 metres wide. They
also had brick watchtowers, making the city appear
impenetrable. Troy VI and Troy VII have both been
candidates for the Troy of Homeric legend, but the
apparent destruction of Troy VI by an earthquake
doesn’t tally with the famous story of the Trojan
Horse. Greek soldiers abandoned the battlefield,
leaving behind only a giant wooden horse for the
Trojans to collect as a trophy. But unbeknownst to
them, the horse was hollow and filled with Greek
Map of Troy that shows where various battles were fought as mentioned in Homer’s The Iliad
“The inhabitants of Troy VI and Troy VII
were the first to settle horses in the area”
The Walls of the Acropolis of Troy VII,
the most likely candidate for the Troy of Homeric legend
20
soldiers, who waited until the dead of night before entering Troy and burning it to the ground.
Instead, it is Troy VII that was re-built after the earthquake that is today thought to be the real Homeric Troy, and its dates, having thought to have been established between 1300-
1200 BCE, also match more closely with what we know of the city.
Found on the site was also a considerable
amount of pottery, much of it in the same style
as Troy VI, and predictably some of it Mycenaean
- Late Bronze Age from mainland Greece and the
surrounding islands - but some of it was different
and had an orange-tan glaze.
Troy VIIb was re-built following the
Trojan War, and lasted for longer but
Three theories
Troy was settled
Fishing
The harbour, now since dried up, was once
We can be more specific
because Troy VII is often
separated into Troy VIIa
and Troy VIIb. American
archaeologist CW Blegen
argues that a “reasonable
estimate” is that Troy VIIa
survived for only “one, or at the
most two, generations.” It was this
city that was destroyed during the
Each time Troy
was destroyed, the
citizens would build
upon the previous
settlement, causing
the layers to pile on
one another
was much less advanced. It soon
fell into decline, and by 1000 BCE
the inhabitants had disappeared
and the city was abandoned. In
700 BCE the city was restored
under the name Ilion - Troy VIII.
In 85 BCE, the Romans invaded
and ransacked Troy VIII. The final
settlement, Troy IX, was a Roman
town. Emperor Augustus bulked it out
swimming with fish, according to archaeological evidence. This made it a good base for the Bronze Age descendants of early Palaeolithic and Neolithic peoples of the Troad region in Asia Minor, looking for a suitable settlement.
Trojan War and re-built by survivors as Troy VIIb.
Troy VIIa was a tightly packed city. The tall,
fortress-like walls were repaired where necessary
and did not need completely re-building, but what remained of Troy VI was flattened and re-built.
One of the most intriguing aspects of it was the fact that every house had at least one storage jar, known as a pithoi, possibly even as many as 20, that were dug below the floor to enable stockpiling food in preparation for a siege or invasion.
Heinrich Schliemann, the businessman
turned archaeologist who devoted his
later life to uncovering the ruins of Troy
with lavish buildings including a sanctuary and grandstand, and there was even a Temple
of Athena, the Greek Goddess of Wisdom. The
city was soon eclipsed following the founding of
Constantinople by Emperor Constantine in 324 CE and although there were much smaller settlements in the 12th and 13th centuries, the stones from the temple were taken out and used elsewhere, and the site largely fell into disrepair. After two millennia, the final curtain fell on arguably the greatest city of the ancient world outside Rome.
C.2600 BCE
Then &
Now
Controlling the seas
The 39 mile (61km) stretch of water that makes up
the Dardanelles is one of the most important straits
of water, because it links Europe with Asia, and the
Aegean Sea with the Black Sea, and it also straddled
Greece and Turkey. Troy was in a perfect location for
controlling it.
In Greek myth
In Homer’s The Iliad and in the 2nd century book of
Greek myths, The Bibliotheca, Troy was founded and
named for Tros, the son of Erichthonius, ‘the richest
of mortal men’. Tros’ son was Ilus; Troy is sometimes
referred to as Ilion. Ilus’ grandson was Priam, who
was king during the invasion of the Greeks.
21
22
Now lost to the sands of time, Babylon was once the largest
and most awe-inspiring city in the world, but how did this
Mesopotamian metropolis fall from such glory?
BABYLON
IRAQ
abylon! The most famous of cities.
The centre of civilisation. The majestic
home of the Hanging Gardens. To
imagine what it must have been like
to walk the ancient city’s cedar-lined
roads, sail past its awesome walls on the snaking Euphrates River or ascend its mighty ziggurat
tower contended by some to be the biblical Tower of Babel - that is the stuff fantasy is made of. What sights this city would have to show, what tales it would have to tell…
However, today Babylon is reduced to rubble, ruin and pitiful reconstruction in a country
wracked by conflict. Suffering from years of
war and total neglect, the once world-leading
Mesopotamian capital is a ghost of its former
self, trapped within an Iraq that has neither the
resources nor the will among those in power to see
this ancient hub of culture, commerce and learning excavated or maintained for future generations.
Home at one time or another to Hammurabi,
Nebuchadnezzar and even Alexander the Great,
Babylon was the foremost city of its age. Emerging from a small settlement that formed between
the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers in the late-third
millennium BCE, Babylon soon grew due to the
fertile terrain and bountiful natural resources in the region into a prosperous and independent city-state under the rule of the Akkadian peoples.
And so it remained until Hammurabi became
the first king of the Babylon Empire in 1792 BCE.
Upon his ascension Hammurabi undertook a
series of wars across Mesopotamia, winning much of the surrounding territory and establishing
Babylon as the capital city. During this first period
of the empire, Babylon was transformed into an
23
unparalleled centre for culture and learning, with
Hammurabi establishing the Code of Hammurabi
– laws that governed Babylonia - and pushing
through the development of many civic structures.
While Hammurabi’s influence would cease
with his death, despite a series of later invasions
– first by the Hittites and Kassites and then by
the Neo-Assyrian Empire in 911 BCE - Babylon
continued to grow and made ever-more scientific
discoveries. As such, by the time a Neo-Babylonian
Empire emerged to once again reclaim power and
overthrow the Assyrian rule around 605 BCE,
the stage was well and truly set for Babylon to
1Am
become the most important city that Earth had ever seen.
From its striking and technically advanced architecture, through to its introduction of cutting-edge agricultural processes (such
as irrigation) - not to mention its redefining
developments in astronomy - Babylon strived to be,
and arguably reached, the pinnacle of civilisation.
It prospered over several centuries and under a
series of rulers - including King Nebuchadnezzar
II, who built the amazing Ziggurat of Etemenanki,
Ishtar Gate and, most famous of all, Babylon’s
Hanging Gardens.
ng the most important of
Panorama of partially restored Babylon ruins, Hillah, Iraq
Mesopotamia’s goddesses of birth
and fertility, Nin Makh had a large
temple dedicated to her close to the
4W
th its main axis parallel to the
1
2
edicated to the
Mesopotamian deity Ishtar
- goddess of love, war and
sex - the Ishtar Gate was one
of Babylon’s most impressive
structures. Built around 575
BCE, the gate led into the
inner city of Babylon, and was built from glazed, coloured bricks and cedar wood.
Ishtar Gate and accessible by the Euphrates, the Processional Way ran
Processional Way. Babylonians would for over half a mile and connected
refer to Nin Makh as ‘Mother’. many of Babylon’s most important
buildings and temples with a road
made from burned bricks and shaped
stones laid in bituminous mortar.
Rise of the New
Babylonian Empire
From 626 to 539 BCE the history of Mesopotamia was dominated
by the Neo-Babylonian Empire, which saw the city consolidate
much of the region’s power. Prior to this Babylon had been part
of the Assyrian Empire, but with its collapse, the city and its new
rulers were left to reap the benefits. As such, for almost 100
years Babylon entered a golden age that would see society, urban
life and culture flourish under the now-freed Babylonian economy.
3
t one time also considered
This non-violent advancement, partnered with select tactical military strikes into Assyria, saw the central Babylon government control an area that stretched from the Mediterranean Sea right through to the Persian Gulf.
24
an Ancient Wonder of the World,
Babylon’s many miles of inner
and outer walls were considered
impregnable at the time. And no
wonder too, as classical geographer Strabo noted the inner walls reached up to 27m (90ft) high!
3
5
Bazaar
A buzzing hive of traders and
6Nelbuch
8
adnezzar Impossible to miss, the
produce, Babylon’s market was one of
the most impressive in the world. From
ceramics produced on potters’ wheels
to tapestries woven on state-of-the-art
looms, everything was available.
5
4
A grand central complex of buildings 91m (299ft)-high Ziggurat of
including a throne room, royal quarters, Etemenanki had seven storeys and
selection of temples, ziggurat and series was topped with a temple shrine;
of administrative rooms, the Palace of some argue it is the Tower of Babel
Nebuchadnezzar dominated central mentioned in the Bible. According
Babylon and only the city’s highest- to its builder, Nebuchadnezzar II,
ranking officials and aristocrats would the tower was ‘completed with
have been allowed to enter it. silver, gold, other metals, stone,
enamelled bricks, fir and pine’.
6
key life source of Babylon and the
surrounding region, the Euphrates River
split the city in two, with a series of ports
and canals extending into the city. The
wares of Babylonian craftsmen were
carried upon the Euphrates far and wide.
9
edicated to the deity
Marduk, the Esagila - which
comes from the Sumerian
name for ‘temple’ - sat near
the ziggurat and consisted
of a complex of three
courtyards and an inner
sanctum and shrine adorned
with statues.
elieved to have been built
under the rule of King Nebuchadnezzar
II, the world-famous Hanging Gardens
of Babylon were a stand-out feature,
demonstrating unrivalled technological
and cultural knowledge.
10
7
25
Did the Hanging
Gardens exist?
Described with majesty and awe in many historical
texts, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon were said to
be one of humanity’s greatest achievements. They
were a multi-tiered, irrigated paradise and in many
ways they epitomised the core values of Babylon:
beauty, wealth and engineering prowess.
But what if they never even existed? After
all, while the Hanging Gardens are mentioned in
numerous later texts, no documents from the
time have identified them. What’s more, ‘Father
of History’ Herodotus does not mention them
at all in his Histories, despite visiting the city and
describing many of its other features in detail.
Surely one of the Seven Wonders would have
warranted a line or two? As a result, today debate rages fiercely over whether or not these legendary gardens were real.
Some academics consider them pure myth; others place them in Babylon built by Neo-
Babylonian King Nebuchadnezzar II; while others
still think the gardens were actually built by Assyrian
king Sennacherib (704-681 BCE) in his capital city
Nineveh. Unfortunately, while much of the region
today remains overrun by conflict, excavation work
to pin down if the Hanging Gardens did once exist
is not possible.
26
The destruction of Babylon
by Sennacherib in 689 BC
“Babylon was transformed into a centre
for culture and learning”
Babylon, Basalt lion, Iraq, circa 1932
Nabuchodonosor’s Palace Babylon Babylon, The Ishtar Gate,
Iraq Middle East G Thouvenin Iraq, circa 1932
Lions on Ishtar Gate of Babylon, Pergamon museum, Berlin
When the city fell into the hands of the Persian
Empire in 539 BCE, while its commercial, cultural
What did
Babylon ever do for us?
Mathematics
The Babylonians, along with Mesopotamia as a
whole, introduced the concept of a base number
system, with the civilisation using base 60 to
divide time (60-second minute, 60-minute hour,
etc) - something that we still use to this day. They
also spearheaded the use of geometric shapes
and algebra - the latter appearing in their detailed
city account records.
Astronomy
No other city in the world advanced astronomy like Babylon. Using their keen grasp of
mathematics, Babylonian scholars discovered how to track the movements of planets and stars, as well as discern the phases of the Moon, allowing them to create the very first calendar. Today, all calendars are derived from this original,
12 lunar month calendar.
Medicine
Babylonian medicine was, for centuries, among
the most advanced on Earth. By introducing
the concept of medical history, physicians soon
learned how to identify illnesses and develop
crude pills, pastes and bandages to treat them.
Indeed, the Diagnostic Handbook from this
time contained a list of medical symptoms and corresponding remedies.
Technology
Irrigation systems, weaving looms and metallurgy
(science of metals) were all greatly developed in
Babylon - the former supposedly used to keep
the famed Hanging Gardens lush. Levelling and
measuring instruments were also invented, helping to construct Babylon’s many complex buildings
and temples.
the Great of Macedon, who took charge in 331 BCE after chasing down the fleeing Darius III, who
1911
Then &
Now
and academic qualities continued, the city took on a role as an administrative capital, effectively controlling the economy of a region that stretched from the shores of Asia Minor (modern-day
Turkey) through to Egypt and beyond.
This would seem the natural high point for the city and indeed it was for almost 200 years. But after numerous Persian kings fought a succession of wars against the West, Babylon became
increasingly taxed and militarised, leading to a
decline in its prosperity by the time King Darius
III came to the throne, reigning from 336-330
BCE. The once-bustling canals and waterways
now remained largely empty, the temples poorly
maintained and the busy bazaars were muted.
However all was not lost at this point. Babylon
had one last roll of the dice to rekindle its former
greatness and that was, oddly enough, catalysed
by another foreign invasion - that of Alexander
he had just defeated at the Battle of Gaugamela. Alexander, far from the conquering general,
took the city but soon went about a renovation
campaign to rebuild Babylon. And it might have
worked too, if it were not for Alexander’s untimely
death in 323 BCE. A period of intense warfare then began between his successors and, by 275 BCE,
the constant fighting in the region had become
so fierce that the city was all but abandoned,
with most of its population migrating to the city of Seleucia in the north. From this point Babylon never really recovered, becoming ever-more run down until it was reclaimed by the desert.
Today, the once-mighty city is a buried ruin, with barely any sign of its former glory evident amid its dusty alleys and crumbling structures. Whether or not this will always be its fate, only time will tell. One thing is clear though - Babylon was one of the greatest cities the world has ever known.
27
The
Ishtar
Gate
Built around 575 BCE, the Ishtar Gate as part
of the Walls of Babylon was considered one
of the Seven Wonders of the World. The blue
colour came from a glaze and was used to
make them appear like lapis lazuli, a semi-
precious stone. The procession leading
up to the gate was over half a mile
long and would host New
Year celebrations.
Lost Cities
Taxila
A centre of commerce and higher learning steeped
in Hindu and Buddhist lore, Taxila flourished for
more than 1,000 years
TAXILA
PAKISTAN
30
Taxila
lthough human habitation in
the area dates to the Neolithic
period more than 5,000 years
ago, the life cycle of Taxila, its
development, prosperity and
Persian records from the 6th century BCE reference
Taxila as a major city in the province of Gandhara,
on the frontier of the empire. Also prominent in
the historical record of Taxila is the writings of two
Buddhist monks. Faxian took note of the bustling
decline, began in earnest with the emergence of trade across the known world in the 7th
century BCE. Located at the convergence of three major trade routes, the city flourished.
According to the Greek historian and explorer Megasthenes, these routes led from Kashmir
and Central Asia, the western fringe of the Asian
continent and east India, connecting Gandhara, or
modern Kabul, Afghanistan, to the valley of the
great Ganges river. Megasthenes referred to this
route as the Royal Highway. The Indian Buddhist
Jataka Tales include accounts of Taxila, calling
the city the capital of the kingdom of Gandhara.
trade junction circa 450, while Hiuen Tsang recorded his impressions circa 630.
Located approximately 35 kilometres from the modern city of Rawalpindi and 30 kilometres
from Islamabad, both positioned to the north west,
the settlement’s original Sanskrit name, Takasila,
which translates as ‘city of cut stone’, was revised
in Greco-Roman literature as Taxila. Also described
as the ancient capital of eastern Punjab, the site is a
fascinating archaeological trove relating to several
historical periods.
While evidence of early settlement predates
7th century BCE and indicates a thriving trade
31
Lost Cities
centre as early as 900 BCE, the pages of the Hindu
epic Ramayana relate that Taxila was founded by
Bharata, the younger brother of Rama, the hero
of the Ramayana and an incarnation of the Hindu
god Vishnu. Bharata named the city for his son,
Taksha, whom he installed as its first ruler. Initially, the city was located on a site known as Bhir, a
hill dominating the approaches of the Tamra Nala
river, a tributary of the mighty Indus. As its cultural
prominence grew, Taxila is believed to have been
the place where a second Hindu epic, Mahabharata,
was first recited, while a university was established
there that thousands travelled to in order to receive
an education.
The archaeological record suggests that the early
city was divided with a residential area to the east
and a ceremonial or religious centre to the west.
Archaeologists maintain that the discovery of a
‘pillared hall’ supports the theory of ceremonial
purpose, indicating that Taxila may well be the site
of the oldest known Hindu shrine in the world.
In 516 BCE, Persian King Darius waged a war
of conquest in central Asia. Occupying the region
of Gandhara, surrounding Taxila, he proceeded
Greek King Demetrius invaded India in 184 BCE
and established a ‘second’ Taxila at Sirkap across
a stream from the original Bhir Mound site. Sirkap
was built according to Greek convention in an
orderly manner with well constructed buildings
and defined streets running in a grid system. The
polyglot population included Greeks, Iranians and
Indians. Greek architectural influence mingled with
those of the Hindu and Buddhist elements in the
area. The Buddhist Apsidal temple measured 40
metres by 70 metres, while the Hindu Temple of the Sun and a Jainist sanctuary that resembled a stupa were nearby. The double-headed eagle stupa combined Buddhist and Greek design elements. A Greek temple and Buddhist stupa resembling a Roman temple were also built.
Periods of Sacastane and Parthian rule followed, and Parthian King Gondophares is said to have
been baptised into the Christian faith by the
Apostle Thomas, although the historical timeline
indicates that the Parthian monarch lived before
the time of Jesus Christ. Still, the tale indicates the
religious diversity that characterised Taxila. During
this period, the Greek philosopher Apollonius of
This striking interpretation of Buddha and
his attendants resides in a Jaulian monastery
at Taxila, and dates to the 5th century BCE
“Taxila may well be the site of the oldest
known Hindu shrine in the world”
to claim the Indus Valley and annexed the entire
area, which apparently remained under Persian
dominion for more than a century. However, there
is little archaeological proof that actually supports
this assertion.
As Alexander the Great and his Macedonian
army moved inexorably east, invading India in
326 BCE, Persian influence had waned. King
Ambhi, an Indian ruler of Taxila, was engaged in
a dispute with a neighbouring monarch, Porus,
who governed Pauravas, a region in east Punjab.
Historical accounts differ as to whether Ambhi
invited Alexander to enter his city or surrendered
outright. Alexander allied with Ambhi temporarily and defeated Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes on the banks of the Jhelum River, leading to
Alexander’s conquest of all of Punjab. Alexander
then compelled the two rival kings to reconcile
before leaving lieutenants and veterans of his army in India and returning to Babylon. At the time of the invasion, the Macedonians described Taxila as wealthy, prosperous and well governed.
After Alexander’s death in 323 BCE, the
Mauryan Empire, which dominated the Indian
subcontinent for the following two centuries, took
control of the Indus region. Ashoka, the grandson
of Chandragupta Maurya, founder of the Empire,
served as governor of Taxila during a period of
Buddhist ascendance. Ashoka advocated the
growth of the religion, and a pair of monasteries,
replacing an older worship centre, was constructed.
The stupa of the Dharmarajika monastery, a
site where Ashoka buried a number of ancient
Buddhist relics, remains a well-known landmark.
32
The Dharmarajika stupa was constructed as
a burial structure by Buddhist inhabitants of
Taxila in the 3rd and 2nd centuries BCE. The
Huns inflicted damage on the site in the 5th
century, leading to it being abandoned
Taxila
Tyana visited the city and wrote it was as large
as Nineveh, enclosed with Greek-style defensive
positions, and its civil layout was similar to Athens.
The third incarnation of Taxila, known as
Sirsukh, occurred under Kushan rule around
80 CE. A wall, some six metres thick in places, provided protection against
invaders. Around 400, Taxila
began extensive research, discovering that errors
in ancient texts had incorrectly placed the location
of the lost city. Correcting the error, Cunningham
positively identified Taxila, and the rediscovery
was underway. Early excavations were supervised
by Sir John Hubert Marshall. Among the
sites that have been identified are the
Bhir Mound, remains of Sirkap and
Discovery and preservation at Taxila
was absorbed into the Gupta
Empire, and the Hephthalites
and Sveta Huna, two of several
Hunish tribes of central Asia
invaded during this period.
Although these ‘Huns’ were
eventually driven back, the
war was so costly that the city
of Taxila was unable to regain its
previous economic and social status.
The Huns heavily damaged the stately
Taxila was Sirsukh, the Dharmarajika stupa, Sir Cunningham,
designated a and at least a dozen others. the theorist
UNESCO World Artefacts, such as coins,
Heritage Site in 1980 pottery, reliquaries and
mainly for the ruins sculptures, have been recovered,
of the four identified and displayed in a
settlement sites museum, and Taxila has become
the most visited tourist attraction in Pakistan. However, the site
remains remote. UNESCO designated
Taxila a World Heritage Site in 1980, but it
Buddhist structures in the city, and much of the population fled.
By the mid 7th century, most of the population
had abandoned the city and as trade routes were
established elsewhere, Taxila became a commercial
backwater and faded into obscurity. When Hiuen
Tsang visited, he described the city as “desolate.”
During the early 19th century, scholars
determined that Taxila’s ruins held tremendous
historical value. In 1863, Sir Alexander Cunningham
is threatened by vandals, plunderers, the ravages
of war and modern encroachment. The World
Heritage Fund has noted that Taxila is one of
a dozen sites across the globe on the verge of irreparable damage or loss.
260
Then &
Now
In 1861, during the British Raj, Sir Alexander
Cunningham was appointed archaeological surveyor
to the Indian government. Taxila was among a
dozen ancient cities that he positively identified.
After returning to Britain, he journeyed to India each
winter, participated in the excavations at Taxila and
at other sites, and went on to produce 24 reports
on the progress.
Marshall makes
dig discoveries
Director general of the
Archaeological Survey
of India from 1902 to
1928, Sir John Hubert
Marshall began a 20-year
excavation program at
Taxila in 1913. He laid
the foundation stone
for the Taxila Museum
in 1918. Today visitors
to the museum can view many artefacts that were discovered during Marshall’s tenure.
UNESCO seeks preservation
Formed in 1946,
the United Nations
Educational,
Scientific, and
Cultural Organization (UNESCO)
is dedicated
to improving
the human
condition through science, education, sustainable development and other endeavours, such as the preservation of historical sites. Regional and cultural history projects have brought much-needed
attention to the threatened cultural treasures situated around the world.
33
34
In its glory Carthage, founded as a Phoenician colony, was
a significant trade centre in the Mediterranean basin and
a rival of the Roman Empire
AFRICA CARTHAGE
he city of Carthage is remembered
both in fact and myth. Its extensive
economic and military influence
in the Mediterranean are well
documented, and its place in
lore is secure as the home of Queen Dido, who
entertained Aeneas, the Trojan hero turned refugee.
In the 9th century BCE, the legendary queen
was said to have founded the city on the shores
of the later-named Gulf of Tunis after purchasing
land from a native people. The deal called for the
purchase of a tract that could be covered by an ox
hide, so the crafty Dido cut the ox hide into strips
and laid out a claim that grew into one of the great
empires of the ancient world. Carthage was one of
numerous cities that were built as colonies by the
Phoenicians, a seafaring and trading civilisation
centred in modern-day Lebanon that flourished
along the eastern Mediterranean and extended its influence across the known world.
Because of its extensive maritime commercial
activity, Phoenicia needed outposts throughout
the Mediterranean, where its ships might find
hospitable ports, its trade routes were protected,
and resources could be exploited. Carthage was one of several such colonies that were established from the coast of North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula in the west to Asia Minor in the east, and north to the shores of the Black Sea.
In his epic poem, the Aeneid, Roman poet Virgil
describes Dido as a welcoming queen who falls
in love with Aeneas, the legendary warrior who
carried his father out of Troy on his back after the
Greeks had set the city ablaze and then sailed to
Carthage. Aeneas was compelled by the god Jupiter
to leave Carthage and venture to the site of Rome.
35
The Baths of Antoninus
or Baths of Carthage,
located in Carthage
Heartbroken, Dido committed suicide, flinging herself into a pyre. This story is likely rooted in fact and fiction, containing elements of other historical and mythical accounts of the city’s history.
The early Carthaginians built their first structures around a hill known as Byrsa, and were probably governed from distant Tyre and supported by
the inhabitants of the already established North African colony at Utica. However, as the Phoenician dominance in trade throughout the region was challenged by the Greeks and Etruscans,
Carthage began to emerge from the
shadow of Utica and then from the
Alexander the Great in 332 BCE. Those who were
able to pay had their lives spared, fleeing west to
Carthage from the former Phoenician capital. Trade
flourished as the city received tribute payments
from other locales and with those who had fled
Tyre reestablishing commercial enterprises in
Carthage. Less than a century after the fall of
Tyre, Carthage had emerged as the wealthiest and
most powerful city in the Mediterranean. A robust
navy provided security for Carthage itself and its
merchant fleet that sailed far and wide.
Wealthy families constructed palaces,
and the modestly affluent lived
A mosaic that was
direct control of Tyre itself.
By the 7th century BCE,
Carthage had begun to
function independently to a
degree, establishing its own
colonies, revitalising older
Phoenician settlements, and
assuming a defensive posture
against encroachment from Greek,
Sicilian and other adventurers. The
The Baths
of Antoninus are
the only remaining
Thermae of Carthage
that date back to
the Roman
Empire’s era
in comfortable housing. While
Carthage’s military opened
new areas to trade, its bustling
waterfront boasted beautiful
sculptures fashioned in the
Greek tradition and over 200
docks that were seldom empty.
Meanwhile, the colossus of
Rome was growing in strength.
Subdued under the terms of a series
discovered in the ancient city of Carthage
Excavations on the hill of Byrsa reveal the depth of the city’s ruins and the complexity of Carthaginian stone
construction; note the large earthen jar
The Mediterranean Sea stretches beyond the ruins of Carthage, a city that once
dominated trade across its expanse,
boasting a harbour bustling with activity
36
Punic empire eventually extended across
North Africa from the coast of modern Morocco
to Cyrenaica, to the southern Iberian Peninsula,
western Sicily and numerous islands of the
Mediterranean. Carthage’s reputation as a martial
civilisation developed during the early 6th century
with the ascension of General Mago I to the throne.
Signed in 509 BCE, a treaty with Rome indicates
that the Carthaginians had already exerted military
and economic dominance over significant territory
in the region, possibly including Sicily. For more
than 300 years, from 600 to 265 BCE, Carthage
fought a series of wars with the Greek city states for
control of the western Mediterranean.
The prestige and power of Carthage were
enhanced following the destruction of Tyre by
of treaties that prevented infringement on
Carthaginian trade in the western Mediterranean,
Rome acquiesced to a secondary role until Carthage
occupied Sicily. The result was the First Punic War,
fought 264-241 BCE. At first, it appeared unlikely
the Romans (novices in naval warfare) could stand
up to the Carthaginians. However, they constructed
innovative warships, utilising the corvus - a ramp
that enabled soldiers to board an enemy’s ship to
give battle. The Romans won significant victories
on land and sea, forcing Carthage to sue for peace
and extracting heavy reparations payments in silver
talents for the next decade.
On the heels of the defeat in the First Punic War,
mercenaries in Carthaginian employ demanded
payment, and General Hannibal Barca emerged as
Surveying
historical
Carthage
How ancient Carthage rose to
preeminence in the Mediterranean
Expert bio: An assistant
professor of history at the
University of Tennessee-
Chattanooga, Dr Kira Robison
holds a doctorate from the
University of Chicago, in
addition to degrees from the
Hannibal bringing trophies
and Roman prisoners into a
cheering arena in Carthage
This view of a pair of stunning columns rising from
the ruins of Carthage suggests the majesty of the
city’s architecture during its glory days. Carthage once dominated trade and commerce in the Mediterranean basin, and grew to rival the Roman Empire for
preeminence in the region, sparking three wars
University of Denver and
the University of Minnesota. She specialises in later
medieval history with a focus on the intersection of
medicine, religion and also law in the Mediterranean.
How would you assess the significance of Carthage in the development of the Mediterranean world?
Carthage was a colony but also a trading port, and its location was an ideal hub of Mediterranean
trade routes. Circa 600 they began to take over
Greek territories in the western Mediterranean,
which included Sicily. They were not an agricultural
society, like Rome, and probably got most of their
staples like grain as taxes or trade goods. They
focused on costal trade because of geography
of the hinterland, and traded mostly textiles, the
famous purple dye, mass-produced ceramics, and
bronze ware. Their trade was apparently expansive
- there’s evidence of tin from Cornwall, and gold and ivory from West Africa.
How did Carthage manage to become a rival of the Roman Empire?
Rome had a diplomatic relationship with the
Etruscans around the 6th century and with Latin
(Roman) coastal towns in the 3rd century. What
seems to have gone wrong was the Romans’
increasing concerns for the safety of Italy since the
Carthaginians had most of Sicily, and the tariffs they
were required to pay for trade goods since Rome
had no navy and maritime trade of their own. This
tension led to the Punic Wars. Eventually Carthage
was sacked by the Romans after the Third Punic
War, perhaps at the urging of Cato the Elder, who
apocryphally ended each speech in the Senate with
“Carthage must be destroyed.”
How would you assess the combination of myth and fact in the Aeneid?
The Aeneid is seen as a Roman parallel to
the Odyssey, and I find that stories like these are often inspired by real events (ie, a city named Troy was destroyed at one point by
some people, though not
the Greeks), and often ar
constructed to make
ideological connections
in one way or another.
An ancient
Carthaginian shekel,
dated 237-227 BCE
37
ROMAN AQUEDUC
R
The ruins of Antonine Baths
at Carthage, one of the three
largest in the Roman Empire
“When the city fell
its grandeur was
reduced to ashes”
a great military leader, quelling the uprising. At
the same time, Carthage found itself incapable
of curbing Roman ambitions as legions occupied
the islands of Corsica and Sardinia. Still, the
Carthaginian penchant for expansion gave rise
to an expedition into Iberia, where Hannibal
besieged the city of Saguntum, sparking Roman
wrath and the Second Punic War of 218-201 BCE.
Hannibal invaded Italy, his army executing a
2
he mercantile harbour was
How to build a great city
Augment the
wealth
of Tyre
Tyre, the capital of the
Phoenician Empire,
intended for Carthage
to serve as a western
Mediterranean port city and outpost for trade
and commerce, paying
tribute to the capital and
generating revenue.
Develop future
trade routes
Largely a maritime
trading empire,
Phoenicia was
constantly in search of new trading partners, and expanded its
potential for commerce
spectacular crossing of the Alps from Spain, and won one of history’s greatest tactical military
victories at Cannae. However, his resources were limited and he was unable to realise the full fruits of his triumph.
After reaching his high tide at Cannae, Hannibal
was defeated at the Battle of Zama, near Carthage
itself, by Roman forces under Scipio Africanus. A
second cessation of fighting left the Carthaginians
again saddled with heavy reparations payments
to Rome. Their troubles were compounded by
incursions from neighbouring kingdoms and
an army was ordered into the field against the
invading Numidians. Unlike the Carthginian
interpretation, the Romans did not believe
the treaty ending the Second Punic War had expired with the last of the indemnity payments. They refused to tolerate the reemergence of a Carthaginian army and the Third Punic
War erupted in 149 BCE, bringing
about the ruin of the once-mighty
utilised for loading and unloading ships in support of the vast Carthaginian
maritime trade.
2
during the reign of Julius Caesar. As a Roman
colony, the new Carthage regained its importance,
eclipsing Utica for a second time, until the fall of
the empire.
During the Christian era, Carthage again rose to
prominence. St Augustine brought new interest
and energy to the faith and resided in the city
for a time. Assailed by adversaries from east
and west, Carthage suffered during the
Byzantine era, and was eventually
conquered by Muslim forces of
across the Mediterranean.
Carthage could open trade
with previously unknown
lands and peoples in the west.
Establish a defensive perimeter
The Carthaginians were a
warlike people, both in
terms of conquest and
defence. Initially,
Carthage provided a
military buffer for
the Phoenicians, and
Carthaginian Empire.
For three years, legions led
by Scipio Aemilianus besieged
Carthage, and when the city
finally fell, its grandeur was
reduced to ashes, lost to war
but not to memory. Historical
accounts relate that not one stone
was left standing atop another. The
Scipio
Africanus was
a politician of the
Roman Republic who
served as consul twice,
in 147 BCE and then
in 134 BCE
the Umayyad Caliphate. They
established the city of Tunis,
and Carthage lay derelict.
Archaeological exploration of
the Carthage site began with
the Danish consul, Christian
Tuxen Falbe, who conducted
the first survey of the area in
1830 while also mapping the city
38
later for the empire
in its own right, as it
went about exercising
expansionist ambitions in the Mediterranean.
razing of the proud city moved Scipio
Aemilianus to tears, and he displayed great
magnanimity towards the population. In 122 BCE,
the Romans established a colony atop the ruins of
the earlier city; however, it soon failed. In 39 BCE,
the city was rebuilt based on plans conceived
of Tunis for the first time. Falbe
published a report of his findings three
years later. Interest in Carthage surged in the mid
19th century with the publication of the Gustave
Flaubert novel Salammbô in 1862. Set in Carthage
in the 3rd century BCE, it brought the history of
T ROUTE HILL OF BYRSA
OMAN CISTERNS
RESIDENTIAL AREA
1 he war harbour was constructed
to provision, repair and maintain the
formidable Carthaginian fleet, which
was a powerful manifestation of the
city’s wealth.
3
he agora, or marketplace,
consisted of a large square lined with
porticos, numerous temples, public
buildings and possibly warehouses.
1
PROTECTIVE CITY WALL
the city to the forefront. In 1875, Cardinal Charles
Lavigerie dispatched archaeologist Alfred Louis
Delattre to the Tunis area on both a scientific and
missionary undertaking. Delattre became the
director of the Musée Lavigerie de Saint-Louis de
Carthage. He also published six works, including a
three-volume account of the museum’s holdings.
Auguste Audollent, another French author and
archaeologist, worked at Carthage at the turn of the
20th century, interpreting many of the inscriptions
on monuments and buildings. He divided the city
into four sections: Cartagena and Derméche include
Carthage at the height of its power during the
Punic period in an area known as the lower city.
The upper city includes the area around Byrsa Hill,
enclosed by a wall that stood above the expansive
harbour. The La Malga section encompasses areas
related to the Roman period. Further French
excavations during the 1920s led to the discovery
of numerous urns containing bones of animals and
children, suggesting ritual sacrifices.
Today, the urban sprawl of Tunis has overtaken
portions of ancient Carthage, but the site retains its
integrity with excavations of a theatre, public baths, forum, temples and residences. Administration,
preservation and further excavation work continue.
The remnant of a Roman aqueduct displays engineering prowess that once provided the crowded city of Carthage, an arid region, with a sufficient water supply
39
Gelo
and the
Carthaginians
The Sicilian Wars, fought between the
Carthaginians and Greek cities in Sicily, lasted
between 600-265 BCE. In this painting, Gelo,
ruler of Gela and Syracuse, grants peace to a
group of Carthaginians. The only records
of the wars that remain are Greek, as all
Carthaginian ones were scattered
when Romans destroyed the
city in 146 BCE.
© Getty Images
Lost Cities
pompeII
The city that once stood as a bastion of Roman life and culture was savaged
by one of the most apocalyptic natural disasters ever witnessed on Earth.
This is the story of its dramatic destruction
POMPEII
ITALY
42
pompeii
he darkness that surrounded him
was blacker and denser than any
night. It smothered like a blanket,
choking the sights and the sounds
from the air. He had fought it for the
century BCE, it quickly became a crucial economic and cultural hub, with its position between
Cumae, Nola and Stabiae placing it at the centre of
human activities. The settlement also developed
a large and bustling port, with the entire Bay of
people’s sake, for her sake, but despite his show
of courage to Pomponianus and the others, he
knew he couldn’t bear it much longer. The sea, his
only means of escape from that desolate place of
dust and death, remained violent and dangerous,
and pinned him to the shoreline mercilessly. The
fires grew fiercer, the falling rock heavier and his
strength began to fail him. When he closed his
eyes, he could still see the flames.
Before the eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79
CE, Pompeii had long been an important and
prosperous settlement. Originally founded by
the Oscan peoples of central Italy around the 6th
Naples - as well as destinations further afield -
serviced through it. Pompeii was economically
and culturally at the centre of Roman life, helping
at first to formulate pre-Roman culture and then
develop the Roman society that can still be seen in the ruins today.
Although Pompeii is best known for how it met
its grisly and spectacular end, it was, for centuries,
very much a city teeming with culture and life.
This picture of Pompeii as a city is still being pieced together. However, thanks to the diligent work
of academics and archaeologists from all around
the world, today we are developing a snapshot of
43
Lost Cities
what life was like in the city. From a basic point
of view, Pompeii boasted almost everything a
Roman would expect from a major settlement.
Markets, bars, temples, theatres, parks, bath
houses, swimming pools, race tracks, vineyards, administrative buildings, blacksmiths,
bakeries, eateries, libraries, schools,
armourers, villas and more were
The lava stone mills and
wood-burning oven identify
this premises as a bakery
at the mouth of the Sarno River was also home
to many Pompeians. For the time, Pompeii was a
rather populous place, with 10-12,000 people living
in and around its walls. The city was home to all
levels of society - the aristocratic rich, the average
men and women that worked as merchants,
labourers or craftsmen, the children,
who attended schools if they could
Pompeii is one of few precious
sources for learning more about
ancient painting and decoration
all present and, in most cases, in large number.
Indeed, thanks to excavation work carried out in the city,
we know that it sported about
200 bars, for example. Equally,
three major bath houses have
been unearthed and numerous
inscriptions have been found in
market halls and other buildings
Herculaneum
was properly
rediscovered in 1738,
and Pompeii in 1748,
although ancient
walls were unearthed
as far back
as 1599
or worked alongside the adults,
and of course there were the
slaves, an intrinsic staple of
Some exceptionally wealthy
members of Roman society
lived in Pompeii. Archaeologists
have found the remains of some truly spectacular residences
within the city walls, which at the
time would have also had amazing
1911
Then &
Now
indicating what was sold, bought
or exchanged within them. From trading
companies to laundries, winemakers to hotels, Pompeii was a city of activity and energy that was run from a grand Forum and watched over by the gods of numerous high-profile temples.
The rural areas surrounding the city were also
teeming with life and activity. The terrain before
the eruption was incredibly fertile, and numerous
farmsteads produced vast quantities of agricultural
staples such as barley and wheat, as well as olives
and more. The city’s incredibly prosperous port
sea views and unparalleled gardens,
courtyards and dining halls. One famous
residence, titled the House of the Faun, covers
three quarters of an acre, while others still contain wondrous mosaics with hundreds of thousands of pieces of stone, or intricately carved statues
depicting men, women and deities alike.
Arguably though, it is the discoveries made
about the lives of the poor or average people
of Pompeii that have been most illuminating
in revealing what life was like in the city.
By looking closely at Pompeii’s public bath
Countdown to Armageddon
24 August 79 CE
For more than 24
hours Vesuvius
brought the
apocalypse to
Pompeii, engulfing
the city in flame,
ash and lightning
44
8am 1pm
l Following more than a l After a morning of eerie
week of ground tremors, calm, Mount Vesuvius
which were overlooked erupts with incredible
due to their frequency force, throwing out a
in Campania, a night of cloud of volcanic material
extremely violent shocks that spreads out around
occurs that culminates the mountain and rises 14
at 8am. Many household kilometres into the sky.
items and furniture are It begins depositing ash
found overturned. over the city.
3pm 4pm 6pm
l The volcano continues l Due to the size and l Chunks of pumice (a form
to throw out volcanic intensity of the volcanic of volcanic rock) fall from
material. As it cools in hail, Sarno River and the the volcanic cloud that
the Earth’s atmosphere, nearby port begin to clog has now blocked out the
it solidifies and turns into up with debris. Ships Sun. Pompeii’s streets
lapilli, hardened lava, get trapped and others are buried under the
which rains down over at sea cannot make pumice, lapilli and ash,
Pompeii. Most flee the port. Shockwaves shake and buildings are crushed
city; some, including the the city, causing some and demolished under
old and pregnant, remain. structures to collapse. the weight.
pompeii
houses, archaeologists have garnered a greater
understanding of how they were lit - by hundreds
of pottery lamps - and by studying a number of the
small shops that lined the city’s high street, the Via
dell’abbondanza, they have also demonstrated how
they used to be protected at night against intrusion
with shutters. It is easy to imagine the owner
drawing down the shutters as he locked up for
the evening.
The vibrant, everyday lives of Pompeians
have also been glimpsed in some of the objects
recovered from the city. The now famous ‘CAVE
CANEM’ sign in one of the larger surviving
residences translates as ‘Beware of the dog’, while
a series of pictures found in a bar show the kinds
of dice games its patrons used to play. Ornate
mirrors and combs show the importance some
of the wealthier residents of Pompeii placed on
their appearance, while records of people, clothing and culture help show that Pompeii was far more multicultural than a typical Roman city, with its pre-Roman Oscan roots remaining even 150 years after it became officially Roman.
It is this challenge of discovering the Pompeii
that was alive, a city that once stood in the light of
the Sun, that currently drives archaeological and
academic study in the field. Thanks to the detailed
records of Pliny the Younger, the famous Roman
lawyer and author, we have a detailed account of
Pompeii’s fall and the story of how his uncle, Pliny
the Elder, strode forth into the disaster zone in
an attempt to help the region’s fleeing citizens to
escape. It is with these records that here we are able
to imagine what his final hours may have entailed.
Pliny the Elder, a respected military commander of the Roman Empire and formidable natural
scientist, was overseeing the region’s naval fleet
at Misenum across the bay from Pompeii when
the letter came. In it, Rectina, a friend of Plinys,
informed him that the mountain’s eruptions had
rendered all escape from the plains impossible, and pleaded with him as prefect of the naval fleet to come at once to save them.
Pliny, always a man of action and social duty,
ordered the fleet’s warships to be prepared and
launched at once. He had his own doubts about
the severity of the situation that Rectina had
painted in her letter, but agreed that action must be taken regardless. In contrast, his men were
Most of the second
storeys of the buildings in Pompeii were destroyed during the eruption
You can Download the File From Here
Plaster casts of the victims
were made by archaeologist
Giuseppe Fiorelli in the 1800s
Download the PDF File Frome Here